The word metaphysics is derived from the Greek (Metata Physika), literally meaning "what is after nature." It was used by philosophers in the Hellenistic period and later commentators to refer to a collection of untitled texts by Aristotle, now known as Metaphysics. Aristotle himself called the subjects of these texts "first philosophy" or "theology," and sometimes "wisdom." He called it "first philosophy" to distinguish it from "second philosophy," which was natural science for him, and "wisdom" because it investigates the first causes in an absolute sense, not just within a specific genre. He also referred to it as "divine science" because its most important topic is God, as the first being and the first cause of existence. Thus, we find that its meaning among Muslim philosophers became equivalent to the concept of "divine studies" (Ilahiyyat).

It is historically established that the original Greek word was not used by Aristotle but was coined by his student Andronicus of Rhodes in the first century BC when he classified Aristotle's works. These texts came after the physical treatises in the classification, hence its literal meaning "after physics." Later, medieval philosophers adopted this title to refer to the topics Aristotle discussed in Metaphysics as subjects that come after natural beings and are not known through sensory perception, which is why they are found to be more difficult to understand. It was said that Andronicus intended by this name (metaphysics) to indicate the subject of its studies, meaning "it investigates what is beyond sensible phenomena, metaphysics being synonymous with the supernatural in Latin."

Aristotle defined metaphysics as "the study of the first causes and principles." He also stated that first philosophy is "the study of being as being," meaning it examines existence in terms of the primary, universal principles that encompass all existing things and make existence what it is. Other definitions are almost a reiteration of Aristotle's or are influenced by them, so we will be selective to avoid repetition and length. Avicenna called metaphysics "divine science," as this science "investigates the absolute being and ends in detail where other sciences begin, so this science provides the principles of all other particular sciences." This definition is influenced by Aristotle's and offers nothing new. Thomas Aquinas followed a similar path, where metaphysics or first philosophy is "the science of the first causes or primary principles, all of which trace back to one cause, which is God." For Descartes, metaphysics includes "the principles of knowledge, among which are the explanation of God's most important attributes, the immateriality of our souls, and all the clear ideas that are in us."

We notice that the preceding definitions are all consistent, as they address the subject of divine science or God, the absolute being. These definitions, in their entirety, did not deviate from Aristotle's and brought no new additions. If we look at the definitions with a religious character, specifically those of Avicenna and Aquinas, we find they carry the essence of the search for the reality of existence, or the first cause, which is God.

After Descartes, the meaning of metaphysics began to change. In Kant's philosophy, metaphysics was considered to contain "phenomena of perception that are a priori, i.e., primary and prior to experience." He also defined critical metaphysics as "the discovery of the primary elements in knowledge and action." According to Auguste Comte, metaphysics is "an intermediate intellectual mode between the theological and the positive; it seeks to know the origin and course of all things, and the primary source for the production of all phenomena."

Interest in defining metaphysics continued into contemporary philosophy. Bradley defines it, saying, "I understand metaphysics as the attempt to know the reality of the real in contrast to mere appearance, or it is the study of the first principles and final truths. I understand it as the effort to comprehend the universe comprehensively, not as separate parts or fragments, but as a whole in some way." Here, Bradley does not divide the world into two categories—the world of reality and the true world—which is a view contrary to his predecessors who understood the world through separation, not unity. Alfred North Whitehead defines speculative philosophy as attempting to "form a coherent, logical, and necessary system of general ideas in terms of which every element of our experience can be interpreted."

Lalande presents several definitions, meaning:

• 1. Knowledge of beings not accessible to the senses.
• 2. Knowledge of the essence of things in themselves, as opposed to the appearances we perceive.
• 3. Knowledge of moral truths, necessary existence, and ideals, as constituting a real order higher than the order of facts and containing the cause of this order's existence.
• 4. Absolute knowledge, provided by direct intuition of things, as opposed to rational thought.
• 5. Knowledge by reason, considered capable of reaching the core of things and thus the primary principles of natural and moral sciences.
• 6. Knowledge of reality through deliberate and radically critical analysis as much as possible.

We consider these definitions for their importance in the history of philosophy. They view metaphysics as a comprehensive and holistic understanding, an absolute and fixed knowledge that encompasses all fields of knowledge. Any absolute understanding of any meaning or knowledge of existence is a purely metaphysical understanding.

As for the nature of metaphysics, it is based on a number of questions that always come to mind, dominating the intellect. These questions include: "What is the nature of the world, its matter and form, and what are its primary components that constitute its laws? Does God exist? Is truth one or multiple? Is the Creator eternal, everlasting, and immortal? Is there a single will that moves existence? Is there one substance or multiple substances?" and so on. These questions, in their entirety, represent the sources of speculative philosophies that must ultimately rely on a cohesive system of thought. These questions clarify the nature of metaphysics.

Aristotle argued for the necessity of metaphysics because "the special sciences, each dealing with its own specific subject, share the use of general concepts such as identity, difference, unity, plurality, and the like, which together form the subject of the general science of being, or metaphysics." Thus, Aristotle affirms the existence of the science of being or metaphysics, considering it a science in its own right from which other sciences have branched off. Accordingly, Aristotle believes that "first philosophy is the most general of sciences because it deals with the most general causes, as the first causes and principles are comprehensive of all other types of causes. It is the most certain of sciences because it deals with the first principles, and the first principles are the highest in degree of certainty. It is the most useful of sciences because it gives us knowledge of the first causes. It is the most abstract of sciences because it deals with things most distant from concrete reality. And it is the noblest of sciences because its ultimate and primary subject is the noblest of subjects, which is God."

This view aligns with the opinions of theological philosophers and clergy in general. However, philosophers throughout history have differed on this matter. Some considered metaphysics a reality and inescapable, while others rejected it completely, considering it an illusion and falsehood, a source of weakness rather than strength. The reality is that the nature of philosophical thinking is fundamentally metaphysical; it is based on the idea of unity, which is a central idea in thought. However, contemporary philosophical thought does not believe in philosophies based on a single absolute idea. Instead, it believes that the world changes, and therefore, the nature of human thinking itself changes, and the ideas organized by the mind change with the changing reality around it. There is no abstract thought or a single absolute idea, because truth is relative and the world or universe is in continuous evolution that man himself cannot keep up with. This is what Nietzsche emphasizes in his critique of metaphysics and its transcendent, abstract concepts.

It remains to mention some stances on metaphysics. Lalande points to the difference and variation in the use of the word metaphysics depending on the emphasis, "either on the idea of certain beings that are not accessible to the senses, or on some system of reality, as a special subject for metaphysics. Hence the difference in its definition and its many meanings, because it is an open subject for all central ideas and not a closed one." There are some extreme interpretations that are not without criticism of metaphysical inquiry. Wisdom describes the metaphysical proposition as "a kind of luminous nonsense," and Wittgenstein compares a metaphysical view to the invention of a new type of song. William James describes the metaphysical philosopher as being like a blind man in a dark room searching for a black cat that is not there. In contrast, Schopenhauer defends metaphysics when he describes man as a "metaphysical animal," Kant called it the "noblest of sciences," and Hegel called it the "holy of holies." Thus, metaphysicians were divided into two groups: one that made it sacred and the noblest of sciences, and another that considered it falsehood and illusion. But both groups meet in that they start from metaphysical foundations in their judgment.

One of the distinguishing features of the metaphysician is "to propose for use or to present for contemplation a transformation of our ideas, a revision of our concepts, and a new way of looking at the world." Accordingly, metaphysical inquiry focuses on a specific pattern of concepts such as "existence, nothingness, reality, phenomenon, substance, accident, man, freedom... etc.," which are central concepts on which philosophy was built. But no matter how many or few the concepts, they fall within the fundamental requirement of metaphysics, which aims to provide a comprehensive explanation by revealing the principle of the entire system of knowledge and existence. This is what Nietzsche focuses on in his critique of this comprehensive system of metaphysical concepts that dominated Western thought for a long period of time.

• Number of Pages: 296
• Year of Publication: 2012
• Binding Type: Hardcover
• Edition Number: 1
• Printing Color: Black
• Dimensions (cm): 17x24
• Weight (kg): 0.600
• Barcode: 9789957068981